CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoritical Background
1. Writing
a. Definition of Writing
Writing is considered as one of the four language skills besides listening, speaking, writing and reading. There are many definitions of writing.
Allen (1991:95) statesthat writing is much more than an orthographic symbolization of speech ; it is most importantly, a purposeful selection and organization of experience.
According to Holme’s opinion writing is simply a way to represent spoken language (Holme, 2004:111). Barli gives definition of writing as ‘to write, to try, to produce or reproduce written messages’ (Barli, 1995;7). It means, before writing, we need to determine what to write and how to write. Brown writes on his book that ‘writing was primarily a conversation for reconding speech and for reinforcing grammaticaly and lexical features of language. He also states the uniqueness of writing as a skill with its own features and convention’ (Brown, 2004 ; 218).
From those explanations above, it can be concluded that writing is the ability to express ideas or exploring experiences, thoughts or even feelings in written symbols to make the readers understand about what are conveyed.
b. Component of Writing
Jacob (1981:58) states, there are five significant components of writing. They are content, organization, vocabulary, language use and mechanics.
1. Content
There are at least two things which can be measured in connection with content; the points thet are presented and formal signals given the reader to guide in understanding the topic fully.
2. Organization
The process of organizing materials in writing involves coherence, order to importance, general to specific to general, chronological order and special order pattern.
1. Vocabulary
Vocabularyis one of the language aspects dealing with the process of writing. The process of writing is the process when the researcher always thinks about putting words into sentence and putting sentence into paragraph and with these we construct whole essay and story. We use special words, phrase, sentences, and paragraph that relate to each other. The result is a stretch of language that we have composed writing. It is clear now that we can not write write or express our ideas if we lack of vocabulary.
2. Language Use
For language use in writing descriptive text and other forms of eriting, it involves correct usage and points of grammar or structure. Grammar is one of important components in writing. It governs utterances that we produce to be right and orderly. Therefore it also has great influence in the quality of writing.
3. Mechanics
Mechanics of writing deals with capitalization, speeling, and punctuation. Capital letters have teo principels used in English writing. First, they may be used to between particular and general classes of person, place, and things. There are some special situations that require the use of capital letter. First word is quotation or formal statement etc.
From the Jacob’s statments the writer gives conclusion the important of components of writing such as :
a. Content is limited the measured the connection from the theme.
b. Organization is makes the coherence from the sentences, chronological order and special order pattern.
c. Vocabulary is one aspect of the language aspects that uses the writer to putting words into sentences and then putting sentence into paragraph and with these the writer constructs whole essay and story.
d. For language use in writing involves correct usage and points of grammar or structure.
e. Mechanics used the writer to give Capitalization, speeling, and punctuation in a sentence.
According the Jacob’s statements the writer must use components of writing to make a good sentence or paragraph.
2. Text
a. Definition of text
Derewianka (1995;78) says that the text is only meaningful stretch of language-oral or written. But of course not all texts are the same and functional model of language tries to describe the ways in which they differ.
When someone uses language to write, he will create texts. When he reads, he will have been interpreting texts. When someone talks and listen, he also creates and interprets text. A text is a product of a particular context of culture and context of situation. Someone needs to understand a text in term of the context in which it is produced. The differences in text because of the choices that he makes from the language system (Board of Studies NSW, 1994;67)
From the above statments, it can summarized that a text is a product of particular contexts of culture and context of situation in oral or written form.
b. Genre or Text Type
According to Gerrot and Wignell’s (1994;17) oinions, genre can be defined as a cultural specific text-type which result from using language (written and spoken) to help accomplish something.
There are fourteen common genres according to Gerrot and Wignell’s (1994;192) opinion. They are recount, spoof, report, analytical exposition, news item, anecdote, narrative, procedure, description, hortatory exposition, explanation, discussion, reviews, and commentary.
c. Descriptive text
23. The techniques to teach writing skills
What techniques did early schools and tutors use to imbue their pupils with such fine writing skills? Teachers are often surprised to learn that the simple technique of copying great writing was the foundation of many early writing programs. There are techniques to teach :
a. Providing students with things worth copying.
b. Make sure that they have access to great books of interest to them.
c. Ask students to bring in their own favorites. Talk about what they like about their favorite books.
d. Move into a discussion of what makes a great writer. Some points that might be brought up include good use of modifiers, making the reader feel like he or she can experience the book through his or her senses, and keeping things easy to read, and yet exciting and new. Discussion will vary depending on the age of the students, but any student who can enjoy a story should be able to think about what makes one story better than another.
1. The best way to teach basic writing skills
a. Dictation; to demonstrate the organization, teach useful vocabulary & sentence structures
b. Analysis; using the dictation paragraph(s) and other model paragraphs, students identify the topic sentence, body sentences, supporting information and concluding sentence.
c. Imitation; students practice by completing incomplete paragraphs (adding a topic sentence, signal words or supporting information for instance).
d. Application; students plan (outline), write, rewrite, edit and publish a paragraph. We use the standard writing process and I mark the second drafts using editing symbols. I assess the final copy by using a writing rubric.
2. Mapping Words Technique
a. The definition of mapping word technique
Concept Maps are diagrams that represent organized knowledge (Novak & Gowin, 1984). This report is a summary and integration of published literature on the uses of Concept Maps to support human learning and workplace performance. It contains a summary of studies pertaining to the effectiveness of Concept Mapping for these purposes, and a description of commercial products that support Concept Mapping and related activities. The main goal of this report is to identify and highlight areas of application of Concept Mapping for learning (training, knowledge sharing, etc.) and performance support (decision-aiding, knowledge preservation, etc.)
Mapping words technique is one activity to increase student’s writing skills in English. It often teach to be one of the most effective ways of integrating language skills in the language classroom. Though the terms ‘mapping words’ have been interpreted in many different ways by both teachers and textbook writers, both activities offer a flexible yet principled way of tailoring intergraded skills to learner needs.
Another very powerful use of Concept Maps is as an evaluation tool, thus
encouraging students to use meaningful-mode learning patterns (Novak & Gowin, 1984; Novak, 1998; Mintzes, Wandersee & Novak, 2000). Concept Maps are also effective in identifying both valid and invalid ideas held by students. This use will be discussed further in another section. They can be as effective as more time-consuming clinical interviews for identifying the relevant knowledge a learner possesses before or after instruction (Edwards & Fraser, 1983).
a. The effectiveness of the Mapping Words Technique according to the Experts
According to Ronald Charter in Vocabulary and Language Teaching (1988:12) states:
“The lists contain a word from the target language, either a synonym in that target language, or a translation in mother tongue, and these can be accompanied by a picture or some mean of graphic or other mnemonic representation”.
While according to Aston in an Interaction workbook (1982):
“Mapping Words activities can involve practice, especially, although by no means exclusively, where younger learners are involved”.
From the statements above the writer concludes that writing activities based on graphics are often a useful way of giving students valuable practices, either when they are in the classroom activities or out door activities. The relationship between the Mapping Words and its effect to improve student’s skill in writing.
5. The concept of mapping word The concept mapping word technique was developed by
Prof. Joseph D. Novak at Cornell University in the 1960s. This work was based on the theories of David Ausubel, who stressed the importance of prior knowledge in being able to learn about new concepts. Novak concluded that "Meaningful learning involves the assimilation of new concepts and propositions into existing cognitive structures".
Concept mapping can be done for for several purposes:
a. to generate ideas (brain storming, etc.);
b. to design a complex structure (long texts, hypermedia, large web sites, etc.);
c. to communicate complex ideas;
d. to aid learning by explicitly integrating new and old knowledge;
e. to assess understanding or diagnose misunderstanding.
2. The method of teaching vocabulary using mapping word techniqu
There are some steps in applying this technique
a. Introduce the vocabulary word and the map to the students.
b. Teach them how to use the map by putting the target word in the central box.
c. Ask students to suggest words or phrases to put in the other boxes which answer the following questions: "What is it?" "What is it like?" and "What are some examples?"
d. Encourage students to use synonyms, antonyms, and a picture to help illustrate the new target word or concept.
e. Model how to write a definition using the information on the word map.
f. After each child completed their map they talked to me about it, on a one- to-one basis, and explained why they had connected certain words and ideas together.
6. The conceptual framework
Writing skills is the essential thing that support the student’s ability to master the foreign language. But the student’s writing skills mastery of the eleventh grade student of SMA Negeri 1 KALIWUNGU is still far from being satisfactory. It because of the teacher who does not have the creativity to learn english writing. The teacher should use interesting technique like the mapping words technique. The Mapping Words technique is a popular realted technique for the teacher. There is an easy way to know more information that the teacher learn.
Using the mapping technique and the description of its connections the children was able to make several assessments about their particular understandings; gain an awareness of the future needs of individuals; make an assessment overview of the whole class to help me plan future projects; help the children evaluate their own work; and it evaluate my own teaching.
7. Research Hypothesis
The writer tries to determine the hypothesis of the research, as follows :
1. There is a significant difference of the students’ vocabulary mastery in english learning between those who are taught by mapping word technique and those who are taught by using flash card.
2. The students who are taught by mapping techique have better in vocabulary mastery than those who are taught by using flash card.
To = Ma – Mb
